Foie gras is a French culinary specialty made from the liver of a duck or goose. Its flavor is rich, smooth, and delicate. This dish can be sold whole or prepared as a mousse, parfait, or pâté, and is often accompanied by other foods such as steak. The technique of force-feeding dates back to ancient Egypt where birds were force-fed to obtain a larger liver. Today, France is the main producer and consumer of foie gras, although this product is also present in other global markets such as the United States and China.
The production of foie gras by force-feeding has sparked controversies due to animal welfare concerns. Several countries have enacted laws prohibiting force-feeding, as well as the production, importation, or sale of foie gras for this reason. Despite its popularity in France and around the world, some practices associated with its production raise significant ethical concerns regarding the treatment of animals.
History
Ancient Times
As early as 2500 BC, the Egyptians discovered how to fatten birds by force-feeding them. This practice spread from Egypt to the Mediterranean, and it was Cratinus, a Greek poet from the 5th century BC, who first mentioned these fattened birds.
Foie gras emerged as a distinct dish during the Roman period, referred to as iecur ficatum by the Romans. Emperor Elagabalus even fed his dogs foie gras. Plutarch attributes to Marcus Gavius Apicius the idea of feeding figs to geese to enlarge their liver.
The term ficatum is associated with animal liver and has led to the word “foie” in several European languages such as French (foie), Spanish (hígado), Portuguese (fígado), and Italian (fegato). This linguistic aspect originates from the Roman and Hellenistic era of Alexandria where luxurious cuisine greatly inspired ancient Rome.
Europe after the Classical Period
After the fall of the Roman Empire, foie gras temporarily disappeared from European cuisine. Some say that Gaulish farmers preserved the tradition of foie gras until the rest of Europe rediscovered it centuries later. Others claim that this tradition was upheld by Jews, who learned to enlarge the liver of a goose during the Roman colonization of Judea or even before, from the Egyptians. The Jews carried this culinary knowledge during their migration to Western and Central Europe where they faced difficulties finding suitable fat with meat preparation in accordance with Jewish dietary laws.
The Jews then turned to poultry fat (called schmaltz in Yiddish), which could be produced in abundance by overfeeding geese where a lot of fat was needed with the meat. The delicate flavor of fattened goose liver was quickly appreciated even beyond the Jewish community. Writer Hans Wilhelm Kirchhof mentions in a book from 1562 that Jews raise fat geese and particularly appreciate their livers.
The appreciation for foie gras extended to gourmets outside the Jewish community, who could buy it in the local Jewish ghetto. In 1570, Bartolomeo Scappi, the chef of Pope Pius V, mentions in his book that a “domestic goose liver raised by Jews is extremely large and weighs between two and three pounds.”
Production and Sales
France stands out as the leading producer and consumer of foie gras in the world. This dish is also enjoyed in other countries such as the United States, China, as well as some European countries. Approximately 30,000 people work in the foie gras industry in France, mainly in regions such as Périgord (Dordogne), Aquitaine, and Alsace. The European Union grants a protected geographical indication to foie gras produced according to traditional methods in southwestern France.
On the other hand, Hungary ranks as the second-largest global producer and exporter of foie gras, known as libamáj. Bulgaria has occasionally surpassed Hungary in recent production. France remains an important market for Hungarian foie gras, which is mainly exported raw. Approximately 30,000 Hungarian goose breeders depend on the foie gras industry.
In summary, global foie gras production experiences fluctuations between different producing countries such as France, Hungary, and Bulgaria. These variations illustrate the changing trends in the international foie gras market, with major players like France maintaining its dominant position in this highly appreciated culinary sector worldwide.
2005
In 2005, France produced the vast majority of global foie gras, mainly from duck livers. Hungary and Bulgaria also contributed to this production. Furthermore, demand in Asia, particularly in China, led to a significant increase in foie gras producers. Even Madagascar has ventured into this rapidly growing production.
2011
In Bulgaria in 2011, five million Mulard ducks were raised for foie gras on 800 farms, making Bulgaria the second largest European producer.
Summary of the year 2012
In 2012, France produced about 19,000 tons of foie gras, accounting for 75% of global production. For this, about 38 million ducks and geese were force-fed. In 2015, global production is estimated at 27,000 tons.
2014-2015: Publication Year
Foie gras production in Europe was around 25,000 tons in 2014, mainly in France. This country produced 72% of global foie gras that year, most of which came from ducks. However, foie gras sales may be declining in France, and nearly half of the French support a ban on force-feeding.
2015-2016: Mentioned period
In 2016, France produced approximately 75% of global foie gras, mainly in the southwest of the country. Cases of avian flu led to export bans to certain countries, including Algeria, China, and Japan. These events prompted France to implement costly biosecurity measures and temporarily halt foie gras production in the southwest. French foie gras exports are expected to decrease in 2016. In the United States, Hudson Valley Foie Gras is the largest producer with around 350,000 ducks processed each year.
Foie gras, a beloved dish in France, comes in various forms and qualities. One can find whole foie gras, composed of one or two cooked or fresh liver lobes. There is also bloc de foie gras, prepared with at least 98% foie gras and sometimes embellished with pieces. Additionally, there are variations such as pâté de foie gras and mousse de foie gras, which must contain a high percentage of this precious ingredient.
In France, cooked preparations are typically sold in glass jars or metal cans for long-term preservation. Fresh foie gras is often available during holidays but rarely the rest of the year except in certain producing regions. In the United States and Canada, good foie gras can be found at specialty retailers, while in France, it is rarer outside of festive times.
In the United States, raw foie gras is classified into three categories (A, B, or C) based on its fat content and quality. Category A is best suited for gentle cooking as it contains few blood vessels. Category B offers better stability for more intense cooking, while Category C is reserved for sauces and other preparations that do not require a visually pleasing presentation.
Production Methods
Species, breeds, and genders used
Geese
The production of foie gras has evolved significantly over the years. In the past, specialized geese were primarily used for this, but now they represent only a small part of global production. Today, it is mainly the Landes gray goose and the Toulouse goose that are raised to produce foie gras. Hungary is now the world’s largest producer of foie gras goose. However, in 2017, cases of avian flu led to a likely decrease in production in that country.
Ducks
Foie gras production is mainly carried out using ducks, with the most commonly used being the Mulard duck. This breed is a sterile hybrid between a male Muscovy Duck and a female Pekin Duck. About 95% of the foie gras produced in France comes from Mulards that are force-fed, while the rest comes from the Muscovy Duck. Muldard ducklings are sorted by sex, with females usually slaughtered as males gain more weight. A new method has been developed to identify the sex of the duck from the egg based on the color of its eyes to avoid slaughtering females after hatching.
Physiological basis
Group cages are the main housing system since the ban on individual cages in Europe. Foie gras production relies on the ability of certain waterfowl to dilate their esophagus to gain weight, primarily in the liver, in preparation for migration. Wild geese can consume a lot of protein and herbs per day. Farm-raised geese that graze on carrots adapt to a diet rich in carrots but low in protein. Increased feeding before and during force-feeding causes the expansion of the lower esophagus. However, the main waterfowl used to produce foie gras do not fly well and therefore do not migrate.
Pre-feeding phase
The pre-force-feeding phase is divided into three important steps:
– Startup: This first step, lasting from 1 to 28 days, involves grouping young birds in large numbers in an indoor space.
– Growth: During this second step, from 28 to 63 days, birds are moved outside to feed on herbs freely while receiving additional nutrition.
– Pre-gavage: The final step, between 63 and 81 days, sees the birds gradually brought back inside to get accustomed to a starch-rich diet.
Feeding phase
Foie gras production involves the forced fattening of birds. During this phase, ducks are usually fed twice a day and geese three times. The amount of food administered depends on the bird’s weight and varies throughout the fattening process. Birds receive more food than they would naturally eat, causing a significant fat deposit in their liver to achieve the desired texture sought by some connoisseurs.
Birds destined for foie gras are often slaughtered around 100 days for ducks and 112 days for geese. At this stage, the livers of the birds are considerably enlarged due to the accumulation of fat in their liver cells during the force-feeding process.
The force-feeding process is done using a modern technique using a funnel with a metal or plastic tube to introduce food directly into the birds’ esophagus. Despite efforts to avoid injury, some studies have shown signs of inflammation and high mortality rates during the force-feeding period.
Alternative production
Nowadays, alternative methods of foie gras production without force-feeding have sparked strong interest due to ethical concerns. By 2023, over fifteen producers offer a meat-based alternative. However, these products do not meet the French legal standards of “foie gras” and are labeled differently depending on the country. Some may refer to them as “ethical foie gras” or “humane foie gras.” These new methods are controversial as they do not yield the same results as traditional force-feeding.
An innovative approach from Spain involves synchronizing the slaughter of geese with their winter migration to obtain naturally fatty liver. Before slaughter, the birds freely feed in a process called ad libitum. Although this method won a prestigious award in 2006, it is not as efficient as the traditional force-feeding to produce a fixed quantity of foie gras.
To address this inefficiency while respecting animal welfare, German researchers have developed a technique to add fat to duck livers without extreme pressure. This method results in a product that is hardly distinguishable from traditional foie gras even by experienced chefs.
Other radical approaches exist, such as genetically modifying a duck or goose to increase their appetite and therefore food consumption, or using special probiotics to naturally obtain a fattier liver in geese within six months only.
Vegan Alternatives
A Spanish company recently launched a new vegan substitute for foie gras called Fuah, made from cashews, coconut oil, and beets. On the other hand, the American alternative called Faux Gras is a vegan spread made from nuts. As of June 2023, a non-governmental organization dedicated to animal welfare identified at least 14 producers offering vegetarian or vegan alternatives to foie gras.
Preparations
French preparations of foie gras are typically done on low heat, as the fat melts more quickly from traditional goose liver foie gras than from duck foie gras produced in most other regions of the world. In Hungary, goose foie gras is traditionally fried in goose fat, then cooled before being enjoyed warm after being fried or roasted. In some parts of the world, foie gras is served in the form of sushi, with pasta, or as an accompaniment to beef tartare or on a steak as a topping.
Strasbourg Tart
A pastry containing goose foie gras and other ingredients is known as “Strasbourg tart” due to the significant production of foie gras in that region. This tart is enjoyed by diplomats, as mentioned in William Makepeace Thackeray’s novel Vanity Fair. In T.S. Eliot’s poem “The Ad-Dressing of Cats,” there is a reference to the Strasbourg tart. The characters Captain Aubrey and Dr. Maturin savor a similar tart in Patrick O’Brian’s Napoleonic maritime adventure, The Letter of Marque.
Hot Preparations
Foie gras is a refined dish, appreciated for its melting texture and unique taste. It can be prepared in different ways: roasted, pan-fried, sautéed, or even grilled. Cooking should be brief at high heat due to its high fat content.
Duck foie gras has less fat than goose foie gras and is more suitable for high temperatures. However, chefs have successfully adapted duck cooking techniques to goose liver with success.
For optimal cooking, it is recommended to slice the foie gras thinly to achieve a rare and uncooked center. Some chefs choose not to remove the veins from the liver as they help preserve the structure of the foie gras.
Seasonings for hot foie gras are simple: mainly black pepper, paprika (in Hungary), and salt. Fleur de sel is often used to add a crunchy textured touch to the dish.
Molecular cuisine has also entered the culinary domain with innovative techniques such as rapid freezing in liquid nitrogen before cooking.
Consumption
Foie gras is considered a luxury dish in France, often enjoyed on special occasions like Christmas or New Year’s Eve. Its increasing availability has made it a less exceptional dish. In France, it is consumed year-round in some regions. Duck foie gras, more affordable than goose foie gras, has become the most common since the 1950s, especially in the United States. Its musky and slightly bitter taste gives it a distinctive characteristic. In contrast, goose foie gras is known for its delicate and less pronounced flavor.
Animal Welfare
The production of foie gras through force-feeding is controversial due to its impact on animal welfare, including the force-feeding process, intensive farming conditions, and human health. Some countries consider foie gras to be “morally reprehensible.” An EU committee report concluded that force-feeding as currently practiced harms the welfare of birds. The industry is regularly accused of torture and cruelty.
Adaptation of breeds and species
Foie gras production is based on the idea that migratory wild birds feed to naturally fatten their liver. However, the hybrid duck used for foie gras production is a crossbreed between a Muscovy Duck male and a Pekin Duck female. It has been observed that the Muscovy Duck does not migrate, and neither the Pekin Duck nor the Mulard hybrid can fly. Domestic ducks, including Pekin, descend from Mallards that sometimes migrate and sometimes not. Therefore, while domestic geese may be adapted to store food before migration, it is less likely that the Mulard hybrid has the same potential.
Force-feeding procedure
Fear
Geese and ducks show avoidance towards the person who feeds them. The feeding process can make them fearful of humans. According to AVMA, the Mulard breed used in foie gras production appears more prone to fear people than its parent breeds. In 1998, the EU Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Welfare also observed this avoidance behavior without conclusive scientific evidence at that time.
Injury
Force-feeding birds can cause damage to the tissue of the esophagus. Recent studies have shown that this method can cause injuries or inflammation in the birds’ esophagus.
Stress level
Studies on Mulard and Mallard ducks have shown that force-feeding can cause stress, increasing corticosterone levels. This stress is similar at the start and end of commercial foie gras production. During force-feeding, ducks may exhibit more behaviors like panting and increased corticosterone levels.
Housing and animal care
Individual cages have been banned in France to improve animal welfare. They have been replaced by cages housing 4 to 5 birds.
Behavioral restriction
During the force-feeding period, birds are kept in individual cages with wire or plastic mesh floors, limiting their natural movements. Ducks and geese are social animals that need to interact, but individual cages prevent them. Even the large enclosures used in Europe do not provide enough space for birds to express their natural behavior. When not being fed, birds may be kept in total darkness, which harms their overall welfare.
Injury
Injuries can appear on the birds’ sternum due to skin necrosis. This condition is more common in birds kept in cages than on the floor. Mulard ducks have a higher prevalence (40 to 70%) compared to Muscovy ducks, which are below 6%. The relatively recent Mulard breed used in foie gras production seems more prone to developing sternum lesions when kept in small cages and suffering bone fractures during transport and slaughter.
When ducks are fattened in collective enclosures, it has been suggested that the increased effort needed to capture and control ducks in the enclosures could cause additional stress during force-feeding. Injuries and deaths during transport and slaughter occur in all types of poultry production; fattened ducks are more susceptible to conditions such as thermal stress.
Enlarged Liver
Foie gras production results in swelling of the birds’ liver. This can make it difficult for ducks to breathe, as their livers are enlarged ten times their normal size. These changes affect liver function by blocking blood flow and swelling the birds’ abdomen. If force-feeding is continued, it can lead to the animals’ death.
Mortality rate
Force-fed birds have a mortality rate of 2% to 4%, while non-force-fed ducks have around 0.2%. The mortality rate remains stable around 2.5% during the force-feeding and preceding farming periods.
Controversy
Foie gras production is a source of controversy, criticized for its cruel treatment of animals. Organizations like Animal Equality, PETA, and
